Founded in the 5th century and spread over 118 small islands, Venice became a major maritime power in the 10th century. The whole city is an extraordinary architectural masterpiece in which even the smallest building contains works by some of the world's greatest artists such as Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese and others.
From the 13th century to the advent of the railway in the early 20th century, Safranbolu was an important caravan station on the main East?West trade route. The Old Mosque, Old Bath and Suleyman PashaMedresewere built in 1322. During its apogee in the 17th century, Safranbolu's architecture influenced urban development throughout much of the Ottoman Empire.
The environs of Safranbolu have been an area of settlement ever since the Paleolithic Age. There are three large tumulus around Eflani. Homeros refers to this area as Paphlagonia. After the Persian and Hellenistic periods it became an even more densely populated region during the Roman and Byzantine eras.The 24 tumuli in the Safranbolu-Eflani region various rock-tombs,reliefs and a Roman temple in the village of Sipahiler, south of Safranbolu, are among the tangible evidence of these periods. There is no trace of either the Roman or the Byzantine era within the city of Safranbolu; neither is there any refence to its name during these periods. The historian Leonard suggests that Safranbolu could be the old Germia, while according to Ainsworth, as the city was formerly named Zafaran Boli, it could well have been Flaviopolis which literally has the same meaning: city of saffron5. Osman Turan writes that the city was named Dadybra before it was taken over by the Turks.
After the Turks came to Anatolia, the history of Safranbolu developed in relation to that of Kastamonu. This region was first occupied by the Turks at the the 12th century, during the reign of the Danismentliler. Later it was recaptured by the Byzantines, but the Çobanogullari settled here at the beginning of the 13th century. At the start, the Çobanogullari were loyal to the Seljuks, then, Ilhanlilar. The chieftain of Çandarogullari from the tribe of Kayi, established at Eflani towards the end of the 13th century, was also loyal first to the Seljuk to the Ilhanlis; was independent for a short period at the beginning of the 15th century, and stayed in power until 1461, then becoming loyal to the Ottoamans. The name of the city is believed to be Zalifre or Zalifra during that period. Eski Cami, Süleyman Pasa Madrasa and Eski Hamam (Old Baths) in Safranbolu are from the period of the Candarogullari. All through these periods and later in the Ottoman era, Kastamonu has always been the regional centre. Starting from the Çandarogullari period, for a long time under the Ottoman rule Safranbolu was referred to as Tarakli Borlu. The names Zagfiran Borlu and later Zagfiranbolu were used from the start of the 18th Century onwards
Documentary research on the history of Safranbolu during the Ottoman period is very scarce. Some names may emerge when we look at its historical buildigs; Cinci Hoca, Köprülü Mehmet Pasa, Izzet Mehmet Pasa being among the prominent people who have left their mark on Safranbolu.
Sources of Building Materials
Stone
The stone used in building construction is obtained from the limestone rocks in the area. This hard, blue stone is utilized also for the manufacture of good quality lime. Another local material, "küfünk", a porous, lightweight stone is used as infill in the wood-frame construction and also for building chimneys; being easily sawed into shape.
Adobe
Although every type of soil could be used in making adobe, those made out of the soil brought specifically from Köprücek were preferred.
Tiles
Roof tiles were hand-shaped in the villages of Çerçen, Bostanbükü and Çamlica, and burnt in kilns.
Wood .
Looking at the houses in Safranbolu we can see that very good quality wood has been generously used. Even today, more than half of the surrounding area is covered with forests. We can definitely say that this ratio was much higher in the old days. Today, 38 percent of the trees within the Karabük Forestry Management Area are firs, 30 percent beeches, 20 percent pines and 9 percent oaks.
Wood used in construction is mainly fir and pine; walnut and poplar have also been used sparingly. Orders for the required wood for buildings were made to mountain villages such as Gayiza, Tokatliköy, Danaköy, Karaevli, Susundur, Aricak and Basköy. They shaped the lumber which they had already felled with axes, and then fastening them to sides of mules brought it down mountain trails. Oxen pulled down the thicker trees. Wood was cut either with hand saws or at saw-mills. In the first half of the 20th century there were three saw-mills in Danaköy.
Mortars Lime: Good quality lime is produced from the blue limestones in the area which are burned in the forest land near Gayiza.
Mud mortar: It is produced from every type of soil in the same way as adobe clay is prepared.
HISTORICAL BUILDINGS OF SIGNIFICANCE
No records have yet been encountered regarding any buildings from the Byzantine times in Safranbolu. Probably, the Hagios Stephanos church (Ulucami) in Kiranköy was built by Theodora. The Eski Cami mosque may have been triansformed from a Byzantine church. The remains of buildings belonging to the Turks start from the Candarogullari period. These have undergone various repairs and transformations through time. Only the most significant buildings are listed below.
Religious Buildings
There are around 30 mosques. The oldest one is the Süleyman Pasa Camii (Eski Cami) mosque from the Candarogullari period (14th century). The other most important ones are Köprülü Mehmet Pasa mosque (1662), Izzet Mehmet Pasa mosque (1779).
Educational Buildings
The Süleyman Pasa Madrasa (14th century) of which only the foundations exist today, is the only educational building worth noting.
Social Buildings
Cinci Hoca Hani (Cinci Hodja Caravanserai 17th century), Eski Hamam (Old Baths 14th century), Yeni Hamam (New Baths, 17th century). In addition to these buildings, approximately 180 fountains and 15 bridges can be listed.
Looking at these structures, we can assume that Safranbolu began to gain signifiance in the 14th century. It attracted the attention of some prominent statesmen starting from the 17th century through the 18th century; and since then, with the increase in its own economic power, continued to add many more buildings, mostly small mosques and fountains, to the existing stock.
Folklore
Safranbolu owns the richest heritage of folklore in the area. Its traditions, customs, folk-tales, folk-songs, music and folk-dances are each worth thorough research. We can trace the characteristic features of the Turkish society behind each and every one of these folkloric items.
ECONOMY
While studying the houses of Safranbolu, their spaciousness; their regular and steady construction; the wealth of their spatial organization; their large gardens with numerous fruit trees and ponds (either in open air or within pavilions); the fact that each family owned a summer and a winter house; plus the dignity, elegance and self-esteem of its people, all induce us to search for the causes of this prosperity.
Agriculture
As a result of the self sufficient economic system prevailing in the city, each family produces its own food. This consists of vegetables, fruit and food which is prepared and stored for seasonal consumption. Meat, oil and sugar is purchased from elsewhere. Most people of Safranbolu own fields in the vicinity of the city. Formerly, there were extensive rice fields on the land where the Iron and Steel Factory is now situated. Wheat, barley, rice and straw came from these fields cultivated by the sharecroppers.
Saffron:
As the city takes its name from this flower and as it is still grown in the area, it will be appropriate to dwell in more detail on saffron. A member of the iridaceae family, saffron is a bulbous plant, in many ways resembling colchicum, with its pinkish purple flowers. It blooms in the months of September and October. The tips of its female organ (the stigma) are picked at dawn. The plant flowers a year after being planted. After its flowers have been picked for two succeeding years, the plant is rooted out. Tips gathered from 100,000 flowers add up to only a weight of 1 kg.
Utilization: Having dyeing and medicinal properties, saffron is used in pharmaceuticals, dyeing and also as a flavouring in cooking. It is capable of colouring water a hundred thousand times its weight.
History: Homeros and Hippocrates refer to saffron. It has been cultivated in Iran and Kashmir for ages. The Mongolians introduced saffron to China, the Arabs to Spain and the Crusaders to the rest of Europe. In Ancient Greece and Rome it was chewed for its essence and medicinal properties and was also used as a dye.
Areas of Cultivation: Saffron is grown in Spain, France, Sicily, the outskir of the Appenines, Iran and Kashmir. In Turkey it is cultivated in Istanbul, Safranbolu, Adana and Bilecik. In three of the villages of Safranbolu (Ak Ogulveren and Davutobasi) some of the families are still engaged in s production.
Economy: Satisfactory records regarding the economic value of saffron beginning of this century have not yet been revealed. We know that at th of the 19th century the October harvest of saffron was exported to Syri Egypt from Safranbolu. In 1923, 3200 Ottoman liras worth of saffron was sold to Ankara and Istanbul. Today, because the saffron grown in Turkey does not suffice to meet the internal demand, it is supplemented by imports
Animal Husbandry
In general, each household in the city owns a cow which is mainly kept for its milk. Every morning the herd is collected by a cowherd. The Angora goat is the most extensively husbanded animal in the area. Yogurt and butter are produced from milk. The male animals are preferred for slaughter. In Safranbolu, it is not customary to consume mutton. In autumn, "kavurma" a braised preserved meat, is prepared from goat's meat, to be consumed during the months when no fresh meat is available. Animal husbandry is also important for the other by-products: wool, hair and hide.
One other important area of production in the old times was bee-keeping exercised on the high plateaus. Honey was used as a substitute for sugar while honeywax was exported. Honeywax was also utilized locally as a subsidiary element by the shoe-makers.
Leather Manufacturing
The most significant area of production in Safranbolu was leather and leather goods. There is no records as to when leather production actually began in Safranbolu. It can be assumed however that the valley of the Tabakhane stream has been used for leather-tannig, being extremely suitable from many aspects: the topography both conceals the Unattractive sight of the tannery and prevents the unpleasent odours from reaching the mean settlement areas while the stream provides a natural recipient for contaminated water. The Ottomans were at a considerably advenced level in leater manufacturing until the end of the 18th century. Mordtmann notes that leather manufacturing had an economic value for Safranbolu in 1852 and 84 tanneries are listed in 1890. Considering that the population was around 7500 during the same period, leather tanning appears to be a very intensive area of manufacture. Being somewhat protected from external influences along wiht the delayed impact of industrialization on leather manufacturing this line of production continued to prosper in Safranbolu up to the middle of the 20th century. Although the guilds were abolished by law in 1910 it was quite some time before their influence within the traditions died out. Later the export of partly treated leather to Europe became profitable and many a rich merchant emerged from amongst those in this trade. According to the booklet published by the Safranbolu Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 415 workers were employed in a hundred tanneries. 430 people worked as shoe-makers, slipper-makers and in leather tailoring. Semi-manufactured leather of various kinds, graded from very fine to coarse leather worth 84.600 Ottoman liras were exported while 17.900 Ottoman liras worth of glazed and patent leather was imported from Europe. Hides of cows, bulls, goats and sheep worth 56.000 Ottoman liras were purchased from the area. There were 16 merchants dealing in leather goods in general and 5 merchants dealing specifically in footwear. During the same years the Safranbolu Tanners Company was about to complete a leather factory which unfortunately functioned for only a very short period.
The change of fashion in footwear and the mass production of less costly rubber shoes for the viillagers decreased the importance of shoe making. The semi-manufactured leather products products could not compete with the products of the factories established in various places in Anatolia. Finally, the establishment of the nearby Iron and
Steel Factory nearly brought an end leather manufacturing.
The Tannery: It is situated within a valley along a stream, the Tabakhane which means tannery. It has its own mosque and coffee-house . The chemical content of the water springing from beneath the mosque is suitable for tanning. The hides left in natural or man-made pits alongside the valley mature within a certain period of time. Tanning is a time consuming and wearying job. Those working in this field were organised within the guild system. The best raw hides gathered from the area were transformed into leather of the finest quality after being treated. Traditional methods were employed in leather treatement. Today there are two workshops using the traditional methods which operate from time to time along with two others utilizing machinery.
The leather treated in the tanneries was purchased by the shoemakers, saddlers and manufacturers of leather goods.
Arasta (market place): The makers of lights shoes (yemeniciler) were gathered in the arasta in their self-owned shops. There were a total of 46 shops in the arasta. Three to five people worked in each of the tiny shops. Hung on strings, the light-shoes were exhibited in the shops.
Several types of shoes for men, women and children were produced at the beginning of the century. These were mainly sold to shoe-merchants coming from the neighbourhood, who arrived in Safranbolu with lots of animals and bundles. On Saturday afternoons the shoe makers packed the shoes which they had produced during the week into baskets and sold them to the wholesalers, who usually dropped by once every two weeks. In spite of the hard work which sometimes kept them busy until dawn, the shoe makers never became rich, but managed to sustain a modest life. Payments to the tanner were due every November. Money was not used until then.
During the War of Independence it was Safranbolu that supplied a great part of the army's need for footwear. This alone is sufficient evidence of the effectiveness of its shoe-making trade. In 1923, 15000 Ottoman liras worth of shoes were sold to the neighbouring towns and villages.
In 1975 there werea few shops still operating in the arasta.
Saddlers and Leather Workers: Horses and donkeys which were important means of transport were used in great numbers in and Safranbolu 46. For this reason saddle and harness making was a common field of production. The producers of saddles and harnesses were gathered in two separate streets in the çarsi, called "semerciler içi" and "saraçlar içi", names denoting the crafts excersised within. It is known that in 1923 there were 120 people engaged in saddle-making.
There still are a few saddle-makers today .
Farriers
As each household owned at least one or two saddle-horses, there was a sufficient number of farriers engaged in horse-shoeing.
Ironmongery
Ironmongers, which even today exist in the market area, were in a wellestablished branch of activity in the old days. Farming equipment, metal parts of harnesses, tools for wood and leather working, household utensils, tools and building elements such as axes, adzes, gimlets, hammers, nails, screws, hinges, locks, door handles, door knocks, iron hooks for window shutters latches and hooks etc...used in building construction were manufactured in the ironmongers' market.
Coppersmiths
Safranbolu was the copper market of the area. The shops which sell ready-made copperware today formerly produced all these themselves.
TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS AND RELIGION
The philosophy of life inspired by traditions, customs and religion is to be content with very little. People of Safranbolu are thrifty; they have no tendency for luxury. Simplicity is everywhere. They sit and work on the floor, sleep in laid on the floor and eat at low tables. There is not much furniture in the homes. Even ornamentation is mostly limited to the properties such as color and texture of the materials used, thus preserving their natural appearance. Consequently it is difficult to tell a rich man's house from a poor man's. In spite of simplicity, however, there is an evident abundance. Food is plentiful and ots of variety; rooms are many and large; even their houses are double! It a healthy, problem-free society all in all.
Harem-Selamlik (Women's Quarters-Men's Quarters):
Religion and traditions close the house to the outside world. For this reason the gardens and interiors of houses are separated from the streets by high walls; the windows are latticed . Women are not seen by men outside the household. Sometimes, even in the same house, men and women live in separate quarters. There are examples of such houses in Safranbolu, divided into men's and women’s quarters (selamlik, harem). Usually, it is only the very rich who can to have this spatial organization. The Haci Memisler summer house is comprised of a harem and selamlik built side by side. Among the examples studied in this book, the Kaymakamlar house is unique in that it is provided with separate entrances for the harem and selamlik quarters, on different floors and openings onto different streets. In the Haci Salih Pasa house also, there two separate entrances and staircases for the harem and selamlik quarters. In other houses although there is a single entrance, a room which is easily accessible from the staircase, without unnecessary intrusion into the family life, is used as a selamlik. The selamlik rooms are treated with special care. In the older examples these rooms have top windows and their ceilings are decorated in a more sophisticated manner.
The Revolving Cupboard: As in the old days, it was not desirable that a woman be looked upon by a man from outside the household, even in her own home. Therefore special arrangements were made to secure her privacy. One of these was the revolving cupboard, designed so as to enable serving the men in the selamlik from the harem quarters, without being seen. The plates, tableware or cups used for serving food, coffee, syrups etc. were placed on the shelves of this revolving cupboard which was built in a cabinet between the harem and selamlik quarters, with doors opening to both sides. After turning the cupboard manually, anything on the shelves could be fetched from the other side. This design shows how the houses which do not have separate harem and selamlik or separate servants for each, conform to traditions.
The Selamlik Pavilion: Some houses have a separate selamlik pavilion in their gardens with one or more rooms. In most of them, there is a pool in the main sitting area. Pools are also to be found in the selamlik rooms on the middle floor of some houses.
There are such pools in both of the "sehir" houses of the Asmazlar. The parapet wall is about 50 to 60 cms from the floor. There are divans (sitting platforms) along the walls on all three sides. In the selamlik pavilion of Kurtlar summer house there is a raised platform with pillars along the window wall and a small fireplace for making coffee at one end of the pool-room.
The pavilion has two separate rooms and a toilet-washroom. The windows are unglazed. The main floor with the pond is the ground floor. In the Rauf Beyler house at the Baglar district there is a very impressive pavilion. Its strictly symmetrical plan has an almost unique architectural concept with its two rooms with an eyvan in between; its large pool surrounded by divans and the beautifully decorated ceiling of the pool room which has a span of 8 metres. The selamlik pavilions open onto the garden which is entered through a separate street door. When the garden pavilion consists of a single room with a pool it is simply called "the pool room". Usually these rooms -which contain a pool, a fountain, divans and occasionally a small fireplace for making coffee- have a polygonal plan
In some houses in the Baglar district which do not have spring water, the pool is replaced by a well, in which case the space is called the "well-room". With the divans on all sides, these rooms have the same refreshing function as the pool-rooms. Drinking water and fruits are chilled in the well.
Ablution
The Moslem religion demands that ablution should be performed five times a day, before each ritual prayer. There are washrooms and ablution closets within the house for this purpose. Each room, which is the basic living unit is provided with an area and facilities for the performance of total ablution; a well thought- out solution from the point of view of the intimacy of family life. Considering the close relation between the two, the toilet is generally combined with the wash-room.
As a consequence of traditions, water used for washing dishes is never mixed with the sewage. It is either collected in a separate pool or runs freely through a wooden gutter into the garden. No specific space has been allocated for worship within the house. It is believed that the ritual prayers (namaz) can be performed anywhere that is clean enough.
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Virunga National Park (covering an area of 790,000 ha) comprises an outstanding diversity of habitats, ranging from swamps and steppes to the snowfields of Rwenzori at an altitude of over 5,000 m, and from lava plains to the savannahs on the slopes of volcanoes. Mountain gorillas are found in the park, some 20,000 hippopotamuses live in the rivers and birds from Siberia spend the winter there.
In the wake of the war in neighbouring Rwanda and the subsequent massive influx of refugees from that country which led to massive deforestation and poaching at the site. Many members of the Park staff had not been remunerated for almost a year. Poaching of wildlife has continued and the staff lacks the means of patrolling the Park's 650 km long boundary. The human population in the fishing village near Lake Edward has increased several fold, posing a serious threat to the integrity of the Park. The fuel wood requirements of almost one million refugees camping inside the Park is estimated at 600 metric tons/day and is leading to widespread depletion of forests in the lowlands.
Fortunately, the mountain gorilla whose habitat is at a higher altitude, have been spared so far. From the daily monitoring of the research and tourism gorilla groups, and the sightings of wild groups, it appears that the current population stands at a minimum of 359 known gorillas. This figure is most likely an underestimate, with more individuals to be counted, and it represents a significant increase from the 1989 census. This can be directly traced to the sheer dedication of field staff operating on the ground. Park rangers and trackers, many of whom have been killed or wounded while on duty in Rwanda and Congo, have been patrolling the forest continuously throughout the years of civil unrest. This dedicated work has limited the damage to the habitat and the population of gorillas.
PHYSICAL FEATURES The park includes: part of Lake Edward (Idi Amin), the Semliki River valley, parts of the Rwindi, Ishasha and Rutshuru valleys south of the lake, the Virunga area within former Zaïre, and part of the Rwenzori range. Lake Edward belongs to the Nile river system and Lake Kivu to the Congo Basin river system. Features include hot springs in the Rwindi plains and the Virunga Massif volcanoes, some such as Nyamulagira and Nyiragongo are still active. The areas of lowest and highest rainfall in Zaïre are in Virunga National Park - under 75km apart and ranging from 500mm at Lake Edward to over 3,000mm on the west slope of Mt Rwenzori. The considerable altitudinal range results in marked climatic variations which affect the overall biological and geographical diversity of habitats. Habitat types include: lakes at various altitudes, marshy deltas and peat bogs, savannas and lava plains, low altitude equatorial forest, high altitude glaciers, and snow fields (the Rwenzori peaks have permanent snow cover).
VEGETATION Located at the border between several biogeographical zones, the park protects both tropical rain forest and eastern steppe species, and its range of altitudes adds to the habitat variety. The diversity includes: bamboo and Hagenia forest on the mountains; equatorial forest along the Semiliki; wooded savanna of the Rwindi; steppes of Carissa, Capparis, Maerua and Euphorbia calycina; various low savannas including Themeda, Imperata, Pennisetum, Hyparrhenia, Acacia sieberana, A. hebeclada and Combretum; swamps and transitional habitats including Craterostigma prairies and Sporobolus savanna; dry thick forest of Euphorbia dawei; Neoboutonia macrocalyx forest on the lava plains; wet thick forest; white heath of Erica, Philippia, Podocarpus latifolius, Hypericum ruwenzoriense, Hagenia abyssinica and Rapanea pellucido-striata; alpine forests of Dendrosenecio and giant Lobelia; and sparse vegetation above 4,300m comprising mainly lichens and spermatophyta, although Graminae have been found growing at over 5,000m.
FAUNA Some of the largest wild animal concentrations in Africa occur along the rivers of the park. Mammals in the savanna of the Rwindi area include: elephant Loxodonta africana (EN) numbering, in the southern part of the park, 3,000 in 1960, 674 in 1971, 800 in 1972, 780 in 1973, 631 in 1980, 500 in 1988 (Verschuren, 1988) and 469 in 1990 (Said et al., 1995), hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius, buffalo Syncerus caffer (LR), numerous antelope including kob Kobus kob (LR), defassa waterbuck K. ellipsiprymnus defassa (LR) and topi Damaliscus lunatus (LR), warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus, lion Panthera leo (VU), which have increased in numbers from 1960 to the late 1980s in contrast to many other large mammal species, and various monkeys. Large numbers of pelicans Pelecanus sp. occur on the lower Rutshuru. In the Semiliki Valley and on the slopes of the Virunga mountains are gorilla Gorilla gorilla berengei (CR) (about 140 were recorded in the Zaire Virungas in 1980 and 280 in 1986 (Verschuren, 1988), chimpanzee Pan troglodytes (EN), and okapi Okapia johnstoni (LR). In the extreme north are forest hog Hylochoerus meinertzhageni and bongo Tragelaphus euryceros (LR). Birds include: Nahan's francolin Francolinus nahani (DD), forest ground thrush Zoothera oberlaenderi (LR), shoebill Balaeniceps rex (LR) and probably papyrus yellow warbler Chloropeta gracilirostris (VU).
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES Accommodation is available at Rwindi and Djomba. Modest accommodation is also available at Mabenga and Kanyabayonga. 7,160 people visited the park in 1988 of which 2,324 were from former Zaïre. Verschuren (1988) makes several recommendations concerning visitor reception and activities.
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The vast natural forest of Yellowstone National Park covers nearly 9,000 sq. km; 96% of the park lies in Wyoming, 3% in Montana and 1% in Idaho. Yellowstone contains half of all the world's known geothermal features, with more than 10,000 examples. It also has the world's largest concentration of geysers (more than 300 geyers, or 2/3 of all those on the planet). Established in 1872, Yellowstone is equally known for its wildlife, such as grizzly bears, wolves, bison and wapitis.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION In the southern portion of the northern Rocky Mountains, in the north-west corner of the state of Wyoming, overlapping into Montana on the north and Idaho on the west. The eastern boundary mostly follows topographic divides but the remaining boundaries are mostly defined by compass lines. Yellowstone is surrounded by wilderness and wildlands in six national forests and Grand Teton National Park to the south, as well as two national wildlife refuges. Taken together, these areas make up the greater Yellowstone area, considered the largest intact ecosystem in the temperate zone of the earth, four times the size of the park alone. 44°08'-45°07'N, 109°10'-111°10'W
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT Declared a national park on 1 March 1872; accepted as a biosphere reserve in June 1976; and inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978. Protection is provided under several congressional acts. It was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 1995 due to pollution of the rivers in and around Yellowstone, all year visitor pressures, the construction of roads and the proposed mine site in the area.
ALTITUDE Ranges from 1,710m to 3,463m
PHYSICAL FEATURES The park is part of the most seismically active region of the Rocky Mountains and lies on a volcanic "hot spot". The Yellowstone Plateau, now a forested area of 650,000ha with an average elevation of 2,500m, was formed out of the accumulation of rhyolite. The plateau is flanked by mountains on all sides that rise to 4,000m. Crustal uplifts 65 million years ago raised blocks to form the southern Rocky Mountains. After that, volcanic outflows of andesitic composition were common up until about 40 million years ago. Andesitic ashflows and mudflows of Eocene age covered forests that became petrified: nearly 200 species of petrified plants have been found. A more recent period of rhyolitic volcanism began in the region about two million years ago, during which time thousands of cubic kilometres of rhyolitic magma filled immense chambers under the plateau, and then erupted to the surface. Three cycles of eruption, dated at 2.2 million, 1.2 million and 630,000 yearsago, produced huge explosive outbursts of ash. The latest eruptive cycle formed a caldera 45km wide and 75km long when the active magma chambers erupted and collapsed. The crystallising magma and injections of new magma are the source of heat for hydrothermal features such as geysers, hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles. Yellowstone contains more geysers than all the rest of the world, along with 200-250 active geysers and perhaps 10,000 thermal features.
Most of the area was glaciated during the Pleistocene, and many glacial features remain. The park lies at the headwaters of three major rivers. Yellowstone River is a major tributary of the Missouri River that flows via the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. Firehole and Gibbon Rivers unite to form Madison River, which also joins the Missouri. Snake River arises near the park's south boundary and joins the Columbia to flow into the Pacific Ocean. Yellowstone Lake (37,127ha) with a maximum known depth of 119m, is the largest lake at high elevation (2,357m) in North America. Lower Yellowstone Falls (94m) is the highest of more than 40 named waterfalls in the park.
CLIMATE Precipitation ranges from 258mm at Gardiner to an estimated 2000mm in the south-west, falling mainly as snow. Temperatures range from a January mean of -12°C to a July mean of 13°C at Lake Yellowstone.
VEGETATION Approximately 80% of the park is forested, and 80% of that is dominated by lodgepole pine Pinus contorta. Great elevational differences produce a range of plant communities, from semi-arid steppe to alpine tundra. Seven species of coniferous trees and nearly 1,100 species of vascular plants grow in the park. One grass Agrostis rossae is endemic. The thermal areas contain unique assemblages of thermal algae and bacteria.
FAUNA Eight species of ungulates are native to the park, namely: elk Cervus elaphus, mule deer Odocoileus hemionus, bison Bison bison, moose Alces alces, bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis, pronghorn Antilocapra americana, and white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus. Mountain goats Oreamnos americanus appear to be colonizing the park (National Park Service, per. comm., 1995).
Among carnivores of interest, grizzly bear Ursus arctos is present. There are approximately 58 breeding females in the greater Yellowstone area, and 144 cubs have been born in the last three years. A minimum of 200 grizzly bears roam the 3,890ha recovery area. Black bear U. americanus is also abundant.
Other species of interest are the federally endangered bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus and peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus, and trumpeter swan Cygnus buccinator. The federally threatened mountain lion Felis concolor and coyote Canis latrans are under study. Some 15-22 occupy the study area in the northern part of the park. Grey wolf Canis lupus (V) was native, but was extirpated by the 1930s and is now being reintroduced. The first wolves were released in 1995. The project aims to have 10 packs of wolves reproducing in the area for three consecutive years by the year 2002. Native fishes, such as Yellowstone cut-throat trout Oncorhyncus clarki bouvieri and Arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus, are protected by regulations that also permit taking of non-native introduced species.
Several species of fish have been introduced, including brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, lake trout S. namycush, brown trout Salmo trutta, rainbow trout Oncorhyncus mykiss and lakechub Couecius plumbeus (National Park Service, per. comm., 1995).
A palaeotological study of Lamar Cave has yielded the remains of over 30 mammal species. This suggests a diversity of fauna in prehistoric times much like that found in Yellowstone today. Elk were found in six out of nine levels above and below a layer radiocarbon dated at 960 years BP. Grey wolf bones were found below the 960 BP layer, and a wolf carnassial tooth even lower.
CULTURAL HERITAGE The park's cultural history dates from 10,000 years ago and extends to the middle of this century. It includes prehistoric and historic use by American Indians and their contemporary descendants, and the period of exploration by trappers and western adventurers. The legacy of the early administration of the park by civilians and by the U.S. Army, and the history of the development of concessions in national parks are preserved in buildings still in use today (National Park Service, per. comm., 1995).
For at least 10,000 years American Indians occupied the greater Yellowstone area. A variety of American Indian groups relied heavily on the resources from this area. Approximately two percent of the park has been inventoried for archaeological resources, and some 575 prehistoric and historic archaeological sites have been recorded. Of these sites, approximately 84% are American Indian (National Park Service, per. comm., 1995).
Yellowstone has over 1,000 historic structures associated with Euroamerican occupation and management of the park; five of these structures are National Historic Landmarks. The national park's museum collections include a diverse assemblage of some 200,000 natural and cultural objects. These include artwork, ethnographic objects, archaeological artifacts, historic objects, and natural resource specimens (National Park Service, per. comm., 1995).
LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION A permanent community of about 300 people associated with park operations are located at Mammoth Hot Springs, the park headquarters. Smaller groups are stationed throughout the park at ten other locations.
Natural site datasheet from WCMC
According to Greek mythology, Apollo was born on this tiny island in the Cyclades archipelago. Apollo's sanctuary attracted pilgrims from all over Greece and Delos was a prosperous trading port. The island bears traces of the succeeding civilizations in the Aegean world, from the 3rd millennium B.C. to the palaeochristian era. The archaeological site is exceptionally extensive and rich and conveys the image of a great cosmopolitan Mediterranean port.
The first signs of habitation on the island date from the 3rd millenium B.C., and important remains of the Mycenaean period have been uncovered in the area of the sanctuary. In the 7th century B.C. Delos was already a known Ionic centre because of its religious importance as the birth-place of Apollo.
Athenian influence was initiated on the sanctuary with the first purification of Delos by Peisistratos in 540 B.C. but it gradually developed into a proper domination lasting - with short intervals - until the end of the 4th century B.C., when Delos was finally declared free and independent (314 B.C.).
The independence of the island lasted until 166 B.C. when the Romans gave it over to the Athenians.
The second Athenian domination started with the definite expulsion of the Delians to Achaia, in the Peloponnese. The declaration of Delos as an "international" harbour by the Romans led to an influx of foreigners who became a significant element of the island's population. The absence of taxes resulted to the concentration of trade activity on the island and, subsequently, to its economic prosperity.
The close relations of Delos with Rome, though, was the main reason for its decline. During Mithridates' wars againts the Romans, Delos suffered severe damage in the raids of 88 B.C. and 69 B.C. Since then, the island's prosperity gradually came to an end. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. only a small settlement existed on Delos and, as Christianity had gradually replaced the ancient religion, the island finally lost its importance.
Delos was a sacred place with splendid buildings and sanctuaries and as such, it was never forgotten; many references are preserved by travellers who visited the island in the last centuries. Numerous pieces of sculpture were transferred to Museums of Greece and abroad, while marbles from the ancient buildings were used as building material by the inhabitants of the nearby islands.
Excavations on Delos started in 1873 by the French School of Archaeology at Athens. Between 1904 and 1914, under the direction of M. Holleaux and thanks to the donation of Duke de Loubat, the most significant sections of the ancient site were uncovered.
Intensive excavations were conducted in the years 1958-1975. The excavations are still carried out by the French School of Archaeology, but the religious, political and commercial centre of the island has already been revealed along with many private houses. Restricted excavations were also conducted by Greek archaeologists at the beginning of the century.
On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.
In Konark, the "Natya Mandir", the dance hall of the Sun Temple probably remains as the last remnant of the glorious temples of Orissa an extant example of the architectural excellence of the times. Built in the 13th Century, here a collossal image of the chariot of the Sun, drawn by seven horses and 24 wheels symbolises the divisions of time. The main tower of Konark stood as high as 227 feet, superceding both Lingaraja and Jagannath Temples. The Jagmohana (Porch) structure and the tower are both situated atop the stone platform supporting the 24 wheels. The Konark Sun Temple also houses a Natamandira or dancing hall.
Only two subsidiary temples out of the 22, that were also situated inside the temple precincts, exist today. The VaishnadeviMayadevi Temple stand to the West of the towers. The Sun temple of Narasimhadeva is a depiction in stone of the life of those times – royal, social, religious and military. The intricate carvings on the walls and wheels of the chariot are unprecedented in history. The fine sculptures depicting Court life, hunting, scenes, celestial deities are epitomes of precision and grace. Graceful sculptures from the world of the Kamasutra, epic of eroticism also adorn the structures. The Sun Temple standing in solitary splendour is the relic of a great past. The history lovers can regale themselves at the Archaeological Museum at the site of the Konark Sun Temple. The majestic Sun Temple silhouetted against the setting sun remains indelibly etched in the spectator’s memory.
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Between AD 850 and 1250, Chaco Canyon was a major center of ancestral Puebloan culture. Many diverse clans and peoples helped to create a ceremonial, trade, and administrative center whose architecture, social organization and community life was unlike anything before or since.
Chaco is remarkable for its monumental public and ceremonial buildings and its distinctive architecture. The Chacoan people combined pre-planned architectural designs, astronomical alignments, geometry, landscaping, and engineering to create an ancient urban center of spectacular public architecture. Chaco was connected to over 150 communities throughout the region by engineered roads and a shared vision of the world. After 1250, the people migrated from the area, moving south, east, and west, to join relatives living on the Hopi Mesas, along the Rio Grande, and around Zuni Mountain.
The cultural sites of Chaco Culture National Historical Park are fragile and irreplaceable, and form a significant part of our global cultural heritage. They are part of the history and traditions of the Hopi, the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, and the Navajo, who continue to respect and honor them.
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At 5,963 m, Kilimanjaro is the highest point in Africa. This volcanic massif stands in splendid isolation above the surrounding plains, with its snowy peak looming over the savannah. The mountain is encircled by mountain forest. Numerous mammals, many of them endangered species, live in the park.
VEGETATION The major vegetation types represented on Mount Kilimanjaro could loosely be termed montane forest, moorland, upland moor, alpine bogs, and alpine desert (Greenway, 1965), although not all of the montane forest zone is currently within the national park. There is no bamboo zone, nor a Hagenia-Hypericum zone. Above about 4,600m, very few plants are able to survive the severe conditions, although specimens of Helichrysum newii have been recorded as high as 5,760m (close to a fumarole), and mosses and lichens are found right up to the summit. The upland moor consists primarily of heath/scrub plants, with Erica arborea, Philippia trimera, Adenocarpus mannii, Protea kilimandscharica, Stoebe kilimandscharica, Myrica meyeri-johannis, and Myrsine africana. Grasses are abundant in places, and Cyperaceae form the dominant ground cover in wet hollows. On flatter areas between the upland moor and the forest edge are areas of moorland or upland grassland composed of Agrostis producta, Festuca convoluta, Koeleria gracilis (K), Deschampsia sp., Exotheca abyssinica, Andropogon amethystinus, and A. kilimandscharicus, with scattered bushes of Adenocarpus mannii, Kotschya recurvifolia and Myrica meyeri-johannis. Various species of the genus Helichrysum are found in the grasslands and in the upland moor. Two distinct forms of giant groundsel occur on upper Mount Kilimanjaro, Senecio johnstonii cottonii, which is endemic to the mountain and only occurs above 3600m, and S. johnstonii johnstonii which occurs between 2,450m and 4,000m, and shows two distinct forms (once described as two separate species). At all altitudes Senecio favours the damper and more sheltered locations, and in the alpine bogs is associated with another conspicuous plant, the endemic giant lobelia Lobelia deckenii. Below the tree line, the park includes six corridors through the montane forest belt which circles the mountain between 1,520m and 2,740m. Forest components are complex and vary greatly with aspect. The wetter southern slopes are dominated by Podocarpus spp. and camphorwood Ocotea usambarensis with Myrica salicifolia and Agauria sp., and an understorey of ferns such as tree ferns Cyathea spp. and thelong-spiked Lobelia gibberoa. The drier northern slopes are dominated by cedar Juniperus procera and olives Olea spp..
FAUNA A number of mammal species have been recorded above the treeline (Child, 1965), although it is likely that many of these also use the lower montane forest habitat. Apart from rodents, especially at times of population explosion, the most frequently encountered mammals above the treeline are grey duiker Sylvicapra grimmia and eland Taurotragus oryx, which occur in the moorland, with bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and red duiker Cephalophus natalensis being found above the treeline in places, and buffalo Syncerus caffer occasionally moves ut of the forest into the moorland and grassland. An estimated 220 elephants Loxodonta africana (V) are distributed between the Namwai and the Tarakia Rivers (Tanzania National Parks, 1993). Several species of rodent and insectivore occur above the tree line, although golden moles (Chrysochloridae) are absent. Bird species of the upper zones are also few in number, although they include occasional lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus (mainly on the Shira ridge), hill chat Cercomela sordida, Hunter's cisticola Cisticola hunteri, and scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird Nectarinia johnstoni. Raven Corvus albicollis is the most conspicuous bird species at higher altitude. Three species of primate are found within the montane forests, blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis, western black and white colobus Colobus polykomos abyssinicus, and bushbaby Galago sp.. Other species of mammal include leopard Panthera pardus, black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis (E) (probably now extinct in this area), mountain reedbuck Redunca fulvorufula and Kilimanjaro tree hyrax Dendrohyrax validus, as well as those species listed above. Abbot's duiker Cephalophus spadix is restricted to Kilimanjaro and some neighbouring mountains. The forest has several notable bird species including Abbot's starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis, which has a very restricted distribution. The butterfly Papilio sjoestedti (R), sometimes known as the Kilimanjaro swallowtail, is restricted to Kilimanjaro, Ngorongoro and Mount Meru, although the subspecies atavus is only found on Kilimanjaro.
PHYSICAL FEATURES Kilimanjaro is a volcanic massif (last showing signs of major activity in the Pleistocene) which is not only the highest mountain in Africa, rising 4,877m above the surrounding plains to 5,895m, but also one of the largest volcanoes in the world, covering an area of some 388,500ha. There are three main volcanic peaks of varying ages lying on an east-south-east axis, and a number of smaller parasitic cones. To the west, the oldest peak (Shira) rises to 3,962m, though only the western and southern rims remain. The remains of the northern and eastern flanks are covered by later material from Kibo, which has led to the formation of a relatively flat upland plateau covering some 6,200ha between the two peaks. The rugged erosion-shattered peak of Mawenzi lies to the east (rising to 5,149m). Its western face is fairly steep at the top with many crags and pinnacles. However the topography on its eastern side is precipitous for over 1000m with a complex of gullies and rock faces, and rising above two deep gorges, the Great Barranco and the Lesser Barranco. Kibo, which is the most recent in origin and still shows signs of minor fumarole activity in the centre, consists of twoconcentric craters with an ash pit in the middle. The highest point on the mountain is on the southern rim of the outer crater, the opposite sides of which are some 2km apart. Between Kibo and Mawenzi there is a plateau of some 3600ha, known as the Saddle, which forms the largest area of high altitude tundra in tropical Africa. The predominant rock types on both Shira and Mawenzi are trachybasalts, while the later lava flows on Kibo show a gradual change from trachyandesite to nephelinite. Structure of the material varied with time and different flows have produced a variety of different rock types. There are also a number of intrusions, such as the radial dyke-swarms of Mawenzi or the Shira Ridge. Parasitic cones, chiefly formed from ash and cinder, occur in groups or zones. Kibo still retains permanent ice and snow (although the area covered has been diminishing for some years), and one glacier extends down to 4,500m. Mawenzi also has patches of semi-permanent ice, and substantial accumulations of seasonal snow and ice. Evidence of past glaciation is present on all three peaks, with morainic debris found as low as 3,600m.
CLIMATE There are two wet seasons, November to December and March to May, and the driest months are August to October. Rainfall decreases rapidly with increase in altitude; mean precipitation is 2300mm in the forest belt (1,830m), 1300mm at Mandara hut on the upper edge of the forest (2,740m), 525mm at Horombo hut in the moorland (3,718m), and less than 200mm at Kibo hut (4,630m), producing desert-like conditions. Winds are predominantly from the southeast, and the north slopes receive far less rainfall. Diurnal temperature range is considerable at higher altitudes. Mist frequently envelopes much of the massif.
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES The national park has been developed with tourism in mind, and approximately 10,800 people visit the park each year. All visitors climbing the mountain must have a guide. Although there are a number of options for climbing Mt. Kilimanjaro, 91% of all hikers use the Marangu Trail. Accommodation for climbers on this trail comprises three hut complexes: Mandara; Horombo and Kibo. Food, bedding and porters are provided. There is a mountain rescue team at the park headquarters and at each of the huts (National Park Service, pers. comm., 1995).
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The Mauritanian capital, founded in the 3rd century B.C., became an important outpost of the Roman Empire and was graced with many fine buildings. Extensive remains of these survive in the archaeological site, located in a fertile agricultural area. Volubilis was later briefly to become the capital of Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty, who is buried at nearby Moulay Idris. Source
Itchan Kala is the inner town (protected by brick walls some 10 m high) of the old Khiva oasis, which was the last resting-place of caravans before crossing the desert to Iran. Although few very old monuments still remain, it is a coherent and well-preserved example of the Muslim architecture of Central Asia.
Nobody seems to know exactly how old this ancient city is, though the story goes that Khiva was founded by none other than Shem, the son of Noah (of “and the Ark†fame); at the very least, the city dates back to the 7th century, and probably much earlier. It the capital of the Khivan Khanate from 1592 until the Bolshevik take-over in 1920. Despite its seemingly romantic history as a Silk Road oasis, the city became most notable as Central Asia’s biggest slave trade center.
There are several outstanding structures such as the Djuma Mosque, the mausoleums and the madrasas and the two magnificent palaces built at the beginning of the 19th century by Alla-Kulli-Khan.
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The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of 1.03 million ha of sandstone plateaux, escarpments and gorges dominated by temperate eucalypt forest. The site, comprised of eight protected areas, is noted for its representation of the evolutionary adaptation and diversification of the eucalypts in post-Gondwana isolation on the Australian continent. Ninety- one eucalypt taxa occur within the Greater Blue Mountains Area which is also outstanding for its exceptional expression of the structural and ecological diversity of the eucalypts associated with its wide range of habitats. The site provides significant representation of Australia's biodiversity with ten percent of the vascular flora as well as significant numbers of rare or threatened species, including endemic and evolutionary relict species, such as the Wollemi pine, which have persisted in highly-restricted microsites.
CULTURAL HERITAGE The World Heritage nominated area has important cultural associations both with indigenous cultures and in the history of western colonisation and development.
As with most parts of Australia, local Aborigines had a close association with the land. This is thought to date back at least 14,000, as possibly as much as 22,000, years, although it remains unclear as to whether the area was permanently occupied during these periods (Mosley, 1989). An intensification of human activity has been dated from about 7500 years ago, and even more from about 3,500 years ago when a tradition of tool use began in this part of Australia. Evidence for such early occupation includes evidence of the use of rock shelters, stone implements, factory sites for tool production, axe grinding grooves and extensive art-work: in all nearly 700 sites have been recorded from the Blue Mountains NP, of which 40% include an art component.
The three main language groups in the area were Gundungurra, Daruk and Darkinjung, each maintaining traditions and stories associated with creation and the landscape. While many of these stories are now lost some of the Gundungurra stories were noted down. The origin of the great valleys of the Cox and Wollondilly, BMNP and Nattai is explained in the story of the epic journey of the Gurangatch (Rainbow Serpent) and the Mirragan (quoll). The language groups of the Aboriginal peoples were further sub-divided into bands with whom they identified.
Art-work identified in the region is largely associated with the Simple Figurative group of styles which are widespread across Australia. Such work includes a wide range of motifs from anthropogenic figures, hands, feet, terrestrial and marine animals, birds and tracks of humans and animals. Styles include engraving and pigment art - both styles are found in shelter sites, while only engravings are found in a number of open sandstone platforms.
The region played a significant role in the development of European settlement in Australia. Initially the mountains were simply seen as a major physical obstacle, lying close to the major new centres of European population. The earliest forays into the region were part of attempts to traverse the mountains, indeed within 3 months of first arriving in 1788, the first Governor, Phillips made his first attempt to reach the mountains. A number of ventures succeeded in penetrating a long way into the mountains, including that of George Caley, botanist and plant collector for Joseph Banks who reached the base of Mount Banks in 1804. Caley noted that the mountains were "impassable" and "must forever remain an unsurmountable barrier to the extension of the settlement". It was not until 1813 that Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson eventually crossed the region, following ground between the Cox and and Grose Rivers. By the start of 1915 their route had been converted into a rough road which even today forms the basis of the Great We
The coastal area of Belize is an outstanding natural system consisting of the largest barrier reef in the northern hemisphere, offshore atolls, several hundred sand cays, mangrove forests, coastal lagoons and estuaries. The system's seven sites illustrate the evolutionary history of reef development and are a significant habitat for threatened species, including marine turtles, manatees and the American marine crocodile.
PHYSICAL FEATURES The site is included within the Belize Barrier Reef Complex, which is located only a few hundred metres offshore in northern Ambergris Caye, to about 40km offshore in the south. The barrier reef presents a zonation pattern which seems to be similar to that described for other reefs in the Caribbean (Ruetzler and Macintyre, 1982). In the north, the barrier reef touches the shoreline at Rocky Point, maybe one of the few sites in the world where a major barrier reef meets a coast (Dotherow et al., 1995). Outside the barrier reef, there are three large atolls: Turneffe Islands (33,000ha), Lighthouse (12,600ha) and Glover's Reef (13,200ha).
The Belize submarine shelf is the drowned expression of a low-relief karst surface with locally developed sinkholes such as the Boca Ciega 'blue hole', and river channels. The coast floor consists of a series of fault blocks, which have created submarine escarpments. The northern part of the barrier reef and Ambergris Caye lie on one block; the Turneffe Islands and the central part of the barrier reef lie on a second; and the barrier reef south of Gladden Spit, with Lighthouse Reef and Glover's Reef, lie on a third (Hartshorn et al., 1984).
Between the mainland and the barrier reef is an extensive offshore lagoon which increases in width and depth from north to south. In the north, water depth averages 2-3m with a maximum of 6m over a flat, featureless bottom 20-25km wide. Bottom sediments consist of a land-derived band in the nearshore and an offshore mud dominated by foraminiferal tests. South of Belize City, the shelf gradually deepens forming a channel between the mainland and the outer platform, reaching a depth of 65m in the Gulf of Honduras. On the west, between the barrier reef and Glover's Reef, and between Lighthouse and Glover's Reefs, depths range from 300m to 400m. On the east side of the Glover's Reef, the sea floor falls sharply to over 1,000m depth (Gibson, 1988).
The approximately 450 sand and mangrove cays confined within the barrier and atolls range in size from small, ephemeral sand spits to larger, permanent islands capable of sustaining human settlements. Cays typically develop in gaps between stretches of linear reef, on more arched reef segments, or at prominent bends in the reef. Ambergris Caye is the largest and northermost cay in Belize (Hartshorn et al., 1984).
The Belize Barrier Reef Complex can be divided in three major provinces, each having distinctive reef community composition and geomorphic characteristics: (i) the northern province, which contains 46km of shallow-water reefs; (ii) the central province, with 91km of shallow-water reefs; and (iii) the southern province, which includes 10km of shallow-water reefs. The central province is described as having the better developed reefs. A detailed transect study was carried out by the Smithsonian Institute at Carrie Bow Cay (South Water Cay) (Rutzler & Macintyre, 1982). The transect was laid eastward from the lagoon to the open ocean, and revealed a distinct zonation of substrates and organisms, governed primarily by water depth and the prevailing wave and current regime (McCorry et al., 1993).
Offshore water currents are dominated by the south-westerly Caribbean Current. Reduced circulation in Chetumal Bay causes it to function as an evaporation basin in the dry season, with salt water penetrating up the New and Hondo Rivers. Salinity patterns on the north
Khami, which developed after the capital of Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned in the mid-16th century, is of great archaeological interest. The discovery of objects from Europe and China shows that Khami was a major centre for trade over a long period of time.
Surrounded by a fortified wall, the 16th-century city of Shibam is one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction. Its impressive tower-like structures rise out of the cliff and have given the city the nickname of 'the Manhattan of the desert'.
Hoi An Ancient Town is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a South- East Asian trading port dating from the 15th to the 19th century. Its buildings and its street plan reflect the influences, both indigenous and foreign, that have combined to produce this unique heritage site. Source
Canaima National Park is spread over 3 million ha in south-eastern Venezuela along the border between Guyana and Brazil. Roughly 65% of the park is covered by table mountain (tepui) formations. The tepuis constitute a unique biogeological entity and are of great geological interest. The sheer cliffs and waterfalls, including the world's highest (1,000 m), form a spectacular landscape.
The vast area of dramatic, forested highland karst landscape extending to the border of the Lao People's Democratic Republic is geologically very diverse and includes spectacular formations including 65 kilometres of caves and underground rivers. The reserve is largely covered by tropical forest, with a high level of biodiversity and numerous endemic species. Preliminary faunal surveys have identified 461 vertebrate species, comprising 65 species. Source
The historic town of Samarkand is a crossroad and melting pot of the world's cultures. Founded in the 7th century B.C. as ancient Afrasiab, Samarkand had its most significant development in the Timurid period from the 14th to the 15th centuries. The major monuments include the Registan Mosque andmadrasas, Bibi-Khanum Mosque, the Shakhi-Zinda compound and the Gur-Emir ensemble, as well as Ulugh-Beg's Observatory. Source
Yosemite National Park lies in the heart of California. With its 'hanging' valleys, many waterfalls, cirque lakes, polished domes, moraines and U-shaped valleys, it provides an excellent overview of all kinds of granite relief fashioned by glaciation. At 600?4,000 m, a great variety of flora and fauna can also be found here.
Stretching over more than 200,000 ha, this exceptionally beautiful park is home to more than 3,500 plant species, including almost as many trees (130 natural species) as in all of Europe. Many endangered animal species are also found there, including what is probably the greatest variety of salamanders in the world. Since the park is relatively untouched, it gives an idea of temperate flora before the influence of humankind.
This site contains two of the most active volcanoes in the world, Mauna Loa (4,170 m high) and Kilauea (1,250 m high), both of which tower over the Pacific Ocean. Volcanic eruptions have created a constantly changing landscape, and the lava flows reveal surprising geological formations. Rare birds and endemic species can be found there, as well as forests of giant ferns.
Links
- Venetia - Comune di Venezia
- Venetia - the Web Site of Venice
- Venezia Net
- The Venice in Peril Fund
Source- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
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- Multiple locations
- Chaco Culture National Historical Park
- Chaco Culture National Historical Park
- Aztec Ruins National Monument
- World Heritage in the United States
Source- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
- Mount Kilimanjaro
- Mount Kilimanjaro
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Links
- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
- Le Parc National des Oiseaux du Djoudj
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CULTURAL HERITAGE The World Heritage nominated area has important cultural associations both with indigenous cultures and in the history of western colonisation and development. As with most parts of Australia, local Aborigines had a close association with the land. This is thought to date back at least 14,000, as possibly as much as 22,000, years, although it remains unclear as to whether the area was permanently occupied during these periods (Mosley, 1989). An intensification of human activity has been dated from about 7500 years ago, and even more from about 3,500 years ago when a tradition of tool use began in this part of Australia. Evidence for such early occupation includes evidence of the use of rock shelters, stone implements, factory sites for tool production, axe grinding grooves and extensive art-work: in all nearly 700 sites have been recorded from the Blue Mountains NP, of which 40% include an art component. The three main language groups in the area were Gundungurra, Daruk and Darkinjung, each maintaining traditions and stories associated with creation and the landscape. While many of these stories are now lost some of the Gundungurra stories were noted down. The origin of the great valleys of the Cox and Wollondilly, BMNP and Nattai is explained in the story of the epic journey of the Gurangatch (Rainbow Serpent) and the Mirragan (quoll). The language groups of the Aboriginal peoples were further sub-divided into bands with whom they identified. Art-work identified in the region is largely associated with the Simple Figurative group of styles which are widespread across Australia. Such work includes a wide range of motifs from anthropogenic figures, hands, feet, terrestrial and marine animals, birds and tracks of humans and animals. Styles include engraving and pigment art - both styles are found in shelter sites, while only engravings are found in a number of open sandstone platforms. The region played a significant role in the development of European settlement in Australia. Initially the mountains were simply seen as a major physical obstacle, lying close to the major new centres of European population. The earliest forays into the region were part of attempts to traverse the mountains, indeed within 3 months of first arriving in 1788, the first Governor, Phillips made his first attempt to reach the mountains. A number of ventures succeeded in penetrating a long way into the mountains, including that of George Caley, botanist and plant collector for Joseph Banks who reached the base of Mount Banks in 1804. Caley noted that the mountains were "impassable" and "must forever remain an unsurmountable barrier to the extension of the settlement". It was not until 1813 that Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson eventually crossed the region, following ground between the Cox and and Grose Rivers. By the start of 1915 their route had been converted into a rough road which even today forms the basis of the Great We
Links
- ICOMOS evaluation
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- Shibam of Yemen
- Desert Cities
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Links
- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
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Links
- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
- Yosemite National Park
- Yosemite National Park
- World Heritage in the United States
SourceLinks
- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
- Great Smoky Mountains National Park
- Great Smoky Mountains National Park
- World Heritage in the United States
SourceLinks
- Natural site datasheet from WCMC
- Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
- Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
- World Heritage in the United States
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